Language | Origin of Words

 

Numerous meanings of language have been proposed. Henry Sweet, an English phonetician and language researcher, expressed: "Language is the declaration of thoughts by methods for discourse sounds joined into words. Words are joined into sentences, this mix offering an explanation to that of thoughts into contemplations."

The American dialect masters Bernard Bloch and George L. Trager arranged the going with the definition: "A language is an arrangement of self-assertive vocal images by methods for which a social gathering coordinates." Any compact meaning of language makes various presuppositions and asks various inquiries. The first, for instance, put an inordinate load on "thought," and the second uses "subjective" in a specific, however real, way. 

In communicated in language, this image set comprises of clamors coming about because of developments of specific organs inside the throat and mouth. In marked languages, these images might be hand or body developments, signals, or outward appearances. 

By methods for these images, individuals can confer data, to communicate sentiments and feelings, to impact the exercises of others, and to comport themselves with shifting degrees of amicability or aggression toward people who utilize considerably a similar arrangement of images. 

Origin 

There are 6,000 languages on the planet, in so much assortment that numerous languages would leave English speakers pondering exactly how an individual might learn and utilize them. How did these languages become? For what reason isn't there only a solitary language? 

Like creatures and plants, the world's languages are the consequence of a long "regular history," which started with a solitary first language spoken in Africa. As human populaces relocated to new places on the planet, each gathering's form of the language changed in various manners, until there were a few languages where there was once one. In the long run, there were thousands. 

Languages change in manners that make old sounds into new sounds and words into syntax, and they move in various ways so that in the long run there are languages as various as German and Hindi. Similarly, as there is a termination emergency among huge numbers of the world's creatures and plants, it is assessed that 5,500 of the world's languages will never again be spoken in 2100. 

Semantic gatherings: From 3000 BC 

The most boundless gathering of languages today is the Indo-European, spoken significantly the total populace. This whole gathering, going from Hindi and Persian to Norwegian and English, is accepted to plunge from the language of a clan of migrants meandering the fields of eastern Europe and western Asia in present-day terms centering on Ukraine as of late as around 3000 BC. 

From around 2000 BC individuals communicating in Indo-European languages start to spread through Europe, in the long run arriving at the Atlantic coast and the northern shores of the Mediterranean. They additionally enter far into Asia - involving the Iranian level and quite a bit of India. 

Another phonetic gathering, of criticalness in the early history of West Asia and still vital today, is the Semitic group of languages. These additionally are accepted to get from the language of only one ancestral gathering, perhaps wanderers in southern Arabia. 

By around 3000 BC Semitic languages are spoken over a huge lot of desert an area from southern Arabia toward the north of Syria. A few Semitic people groups have an unmistakable influence in the early development of the area, from the Babylonians and Assyrians to the Hebrews and Phoenicians. Furthermore, one Semitic language, Aramaic, becomes for some time the Lingua franca of the Middle East. 

Language and Race 

A mutual phonetic family doesn't suggest any racial connection, however, in present-day times this differentiation has regularly been obscured. Inside the Indo-European family, for instance, there is a littler Indo-Iranian gathering of languages, otherwise called Aryan, which is spoken from Persia to India. 

With regards to an absolutely unwarranted supremacist hypothesis of the late nineteenth century, the Nazis picked the term Aryan to recognize a blondie ace race. Light or not, the Aryans are basically an etymological instead of a hereditary family. The equivalent is valid for the Semitic family, including two gatherings that have had a significant influence in mankind's history - the Jews and the Arabs. 

Enclaves of Language 

On a Linguistic guide of the world, the vast majority of the extraordinary language families possess one unmistakable and independent domain. The two special cases are the Indo-European and Finno-Ugric gatherings. 

In present-day times the Indo-European languages have spread over the globe - to North and South America, Australia, and New Zealand - because of European imperialism. Yet, the blending of Indo-European and Finno-Ugric, shaping an interwoven blanket across Europe, has come to fruition for an alternate and prior explanation. Finland, along with Estonia on the contrary shore of the Baltic, structures one secluded pocket of the Finno-Ugric gathering (the Finno part). Hungary is another (the Ugric component). 

The reason for this wide detachment is the incredible level of Europe which Finno-Ugric and Indo-European clans have shared and battled about as the centuries progressed. The familial language of the Finns, Estonians, and Hungarians was once spoken in a conservative locale between the Baltic and the Ural mountains until these individuals were dissipated by Indo-European weight. 

Latin and German: From the 5th century 

Throughout history languages constantly penetrate one another, as words are spread by success, realm, exchange, religion, innovation, or - in present-day times - worldwide amusement. A decent enduring case of this procedure is the line in western Europe partitioning the Romance languages (those getting from a 'Roman' model) from the Germanic tongues. The Romance family incorporates Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian (the aftereffect of a fruitful Roman crusade in the second century AD). The Germanic gathering is English, Dutch, Flemish, German, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, and Icelandic. 

This etymological division precisely mirrors the impact of the Roman domain. Italy, France, and the landmass of Spain were adequately steady locales in the Roman world to hold the impact of Latin after the breakdown of the realm. 

The Germanic zones east and north of the Rhine were never completely brought under Roman control. Britain was securely inside the domain for three centuries. Yet, the Romanized Celts were not sufficiently able to oppose the attacking German clans, the Angles, and the Saxons. Their languages won as Anglo-Saxon. Present-day English possesses a center situation inside the western European group of languages, with its jargon around half Germanic and half Romance in origin. 

The reason is later, in the Norman victory. In the wake of holding onto northwest France and embracing the nearby language, the Normans show up in England with French as a fundamental piece of their social things. A few centuries of rule by Norman blue-bloods and civil servants bring Latin words over into the language of England with the help of medieval French.

Semantic development 

The continuous battle between languages is a procedure fundamentally the same as development. A word, similar to quality, will head out and win as per its helpfulness. A word's wellness to endure may get from being joined to an alluring new development or substance, or just from being an entertaining or valuable idea. 'Anti-inflammatory medicine', organizations in 1899 by its German trend-setter from the beginning letters of Acetylirte Spirsaure (acetylated spiraeas destructive), rapidly turned into a worldwide word. In a less genuine setting 'stiff neck', first given its current importance in English in the mid-nineteenth century, is presently naturalized in a considerable number of languages. 

Similarly, as with advancement, the improvement of language is a powerful power - however, conservatives constantly endeavor to fabricate boundaries against change. The valuable word 'ideally' (long accessible to Germans as hoffentlich, and signifying 'it is to be trusted that') has as of late been steamrollered into the English language by people in general against yells of dissent from the perfectionists. 

On a more stupendous scale, the French government every now and then enacts insufficiently against English words wandering into French. These are the half breeds portrayed as franglais. A genuine case of their rudeness is the tempting notification on a tweed coat found in a Parisian shop window: Très highbrow snot, Presque miscreant (very braggart, nearly creep). 

Majestic tongues 

The French despondency about being polluted by English (however the interruption is unimportant contrasted with the mind-boggling impact of Norman French on English before) is connected to a more extensive part of the transformative battle between languages. A meaningful step forward for any language is to turn into a Lingua franca. 

Invariably the consequence of intensity and renown, this status is accomplished by French after the prime of France's global impact under Louis XIV. On later occasions, English - first through the British domain, however, more essentially through American world strength in the twentieth century - has supplanted French in this job. 

English in the late twentieth century is in the blessed situation of being the most widely used language at a surprising second. Without precedent for history, a worldwide language is required for commonsense purposes (by researchers, via aircraft pilots). In the interim, a correspondence framework is set up to spread some knowledge of the English language to a mass worldwide crowd through radio, TV, and the web. 

The supreme force supporting American English as the most widely used language is just because of social and financial instead of the military. The example of history demands that English isn't probably going to be the world's last most widely used language. Others will go back and forth. It is likewise consistent with the state that the transcendence of English relies upon its spread instead of the all outnumber talking it. 

Chinese is spoken by a larger number of individuals than English (yet in just a single area of the world), and the Chinese monetary force lies later on. In any case, the multifaceted nature of Chinese maybe makes it a far-fetched rival competitor. One of the extraordinary points of interest of English is that it is anything but difficult to talk at a basic level, however massively complex in its expression. 

New languages from old 

In the interim, the developmental procedures go on. As of now, there are numerous assortments of English being used. The pidgin English thriving in New Guinea is puzzling to a pariah; originally formulated as a reasonable business language, decreased to its easiest components, it has developed its own rich character. 

Similarly, English-talking networks in the West Indies or in India (also America) have created nearby words, expressions, and developments that give their own adaptation of the language an exceptional shading. The shocking expansion of Indo-European languages from one tongue, only 5000 years back, won't be rehashed in our more interconnected world. In any case, the inclination of language to advance proceeds with unchecked.

Varients 

The word language contains a variety of various assignments. Two faculties have just been recognized: language as an all-inclusive animal groups explicit ability of mankind and languages as the different appearances of that capacity, similarly as with English, French, Latin, Swahili, Malay, etc. 

There is, obviously, no noticeable all-inclusive language well beyond the different languages that have been or are spoken or composed, yet one may decide to focus on the general and even the all-inclusive highlights, qualities, and parts of various languages and on the manners by which similar arrangements of elucidating techniques and illustrative hypotheses might be applied to various languages. In this manner, one may allude to language (when all is said in done) as one's object of study. 

This is what is finished by etymologists, or semantic researchers, people giving themselves to the logical investigation of languages (instead of the well-known feeling of etymologists as polyglots, people having an order of a few distinct languages). 

Dialects 

It has just been brought up that no two people talk precisely indistinguishable, and, inside the zone of everything except the littlest discourse networks (gatherings of individuals communicating in a similar language), there are regions of conspicuously various kinds of language, called tongues, that don't, in any case, render intercommunication outlandish or notably troublesome. 

Since inter comprehensibility lies along a scale, the degree required for at least two types of discourse to qualify as lingos of a solitary language, rather than being viewed as discrete languages, isn't anything but difficult to evaluate or to set down ahead of time, and the real cutoff point must in the final hotel be subjective. By and by, in any case, the terms tongue and language can be utilized with sensible understanding. 

One talks about various tongues of English (Southern British English, Northern British English, Scottish English, Midwest American English, New England American English, Australian English, etc, with, obviously, a lot more carefully recognized subdialects inside these extremely broad classifications), however, nobody would discuss Welsh and English or of Irish and English as vernaculars of a solitary language, even though they are spoken inside similar regions and frequently by individuals living in indistinguishable towns from one another. 

Jargon

Some of the time, as on account of criminal terminologies, some portion of the capacity of unique languages is purposely to misdirect and impede the remainder of society and the experts specifically; they may even turn out to be entirely invulnerable to outcasts. In any case, this isn't the sole or principal reason for most specific assortments of language. 

Callings whose individuals esteem their remaining in the public arena and are anxious to deliver their administrations to the open cultivate their own jargon and use, mostly to upgrade the respect of their calling and the aptitudes they speak to yet incompletely additionally to expand their productivity. A case of this is the language of the law and of attorneys. 

The utilization of specific sorts of language in cultivating solidarity is likewise confirming in the generalized types of jargon utilized in practically all games and games. Among conventional games, for instance, tennis scores utilize the arrangement love, 15, 30, 40, and game; cricketers verbally offer to the umpire when a batsman might be out by calling "How's that?" and the methods of being out are assigned by generalizations, "run out," "leg before wicket," "puzzled, etc. 

Pidgins and Creoles 

Some particular languages were created to keep the untouchable under control. In different conditions, languages have been intentionally made to encourage correspondence with untouchables. This happens when individuals communicating in two distinct languages need to cooperate, normally in some type of exchange connection or managerial everyday practice. In such circumstances, the supposed pidgins emerge, pretty much deliberately comprised of jargon things from every language, with the common surrender of syntactic complexities that would create turmoil to either party. 

Pidgins have been especially connected with zones settled by European merchants; models have been Chinook Jargon, a most widely used language dependent on an American Indian language and English that was previously utilized in Washington and Oregon, and Beach-la-damage, an English-based pidgin of parts of the South Seas. A few pidgins have come to be broadly utilized, for example, Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea and the pidgins of the West African coast. 

Creoles vary from pidgins in that, as first languages, they are dependent upon the characteristic procedures of progress like some other language, and, despite the intentionally disentangled type of the original pidgin, creoles build up their own complexities throughout ages. This happens because the limited uses to which pidgins were first put and for which they were conceived didn't require any incredible adaptability. 

When such a language turns into the first or just language of numerous individuals, it must secure the assets (i.e., the multifaceted nature) to react sufficiently to all the prerequisites of a characteristic language. The examination of the strategies whereby a pidgin turns into a creole and of the association among creoles and a nation's standard dialect is carried on interior sociolinguistics.

Communication through Signing (Sign Language)

Marked languages and signal languages have indistinguishable etymological parts from communicated in languages. Even though they don't include discourse sounds, they have their own language structure, punctuation, and morphology. Gesture-based communication is frequently utilized in hard of hearing networks, even though it is likewise some of the time utilized by hearing individuals when they can't impart verbally. 

Paralinguistics 

At the point when people talk, they don't typically limit themselves to the minor emanation of discourse sounds. Since talking generally includes in any event two gatherings in sight of one another, a lot of significance is passed on by outward appearance and developments and stances of the entire body yet particularly of the hands; these are altogether known as signals. The commitment of real motions to the absolute importance of a discussion is to some degree socially decided and varies in various networks. Exactly how significant these visual images are might be seen when one thinks about how considerably less compelling telephone discussion is when contrasted with discussion face with the face. 

Representative and Scripting Language 

Language is an image framework. It might be respected, as a result of its vast adaptability and profitability, as the image framework second to none. In any case, there are other image frameworks perceived and organized in the various societies of mankind. Instances of these exist on guides and outlines and in the shows of authentic workmanship. 

Other image frameworks are melodic documentation and move documentation, wherein realistic images assign melodic pitches and different highlights of melodic execution and the developments of formalized moves. All the more freely, because music itself can pass on and stimulate feelings and certain melodic structures and structures are regularly connected with specific sorts of feelings, one often peruses of the "language of music" or even of "the sentence structure of music." 

The terms language and punctuation are here being utilized figuratively, be that as it may, if simply because no image framework other than language has a similar capability of limitless profitability, augmentation, and exactness. 

Languages are utilized by people to speak with other individuals. Subordinately, pieces of language might be utilized by people to control hardware, as when various fastens and switches are set apart with words or expressions assigning their capacities. 

A particular improvement of human-machine language is found in PC programming languages, which give the methods whereby sets of guidelines and information of different sorts are provided to PCs in structures adequate to these machines. Different sorts of such languages are utilized for various purposes. 

A few theories on Origin 

Words don't desert relics composing started long after language did so speculations of language origins have commonly been founded on hunches. For a considerable length of time there had been so much pointless hypothesis over the subject of how language started that when the Paris Linguistic Society was established in 1866, its standing rules remembered a boycott for any conversations of it. The early speculations are currently alluded to by the monikers given to them by language researchers tired of unsupportable just-so stories. 

The Bow-Wow Theory 

As indicated by this hypothesis, language started when our progenitors began copying the common sounds around them. The primary discourse was onomatopoeic set apart by echoic words, for example, moo, yowl, sprinkle, cuckoo, and blast. 

What's going on with this hypothesis? 

Moderately scarcely any words are onomatopoeic, and these words differ starting with one language then onto the next. For example, a canine's bark is heard as au in Brazil, ham in Albania, and wang, wang in China. What's more, numerous onomatopoeic words are of ongoing origin, and not all are gotten from normal sounds. 

The Ding-Dong Theory 

This hypothesis, supported by Plato and Pythagoras, keeps up that discourse emerged because of the basic characteristics of items in nature. The original sounds individuals made were as far as anyone knows in agreement with their general surroundings. 

What's going on with this hypothesis? 

Aside from some uncommon cases of sound imagery, there is no convincing proof, in any language, of a natural association among sound and significance. 

The La-La Theory 

The Danish etymologist Otto Jespersen recommended that language may have created from sounds related to adoration, play, and (particularly) tune. 

What's going on with this hypothesis? 

As David Crystal notes in "How Language Works" (Penguin, 2005), this hypothesis despite everything neglects to represent "... the hole between the passionate and the levelheaded parts of discourse articulation... ." 

The Pooh-Pooh Theory 

This theory holds that talk begun with interpositions unconstrained cries of anguish ("Ouch!"), stun ("Oh!"), and diverse sentiments ("Yabba Dabba Do!"). 

What's going on with this hypothesis? 

No language contains a lot of interpositions, and, Crystal brings up, "the snaps, admissions of breath, and different clamors which are utilized thusly bear little relationship to the vowels and consonants found in phonology." 

The Yo-He-Ho Theory 

As indicated by this hypothesis, language advanced from the snorts, moans, and grunts evoked by overwhelming physical work. 

What's up with this hypothesis? 

Even though this idea may represent a portion of the musical highlights of the language, it doesn't go far in clarifying where words originate from. 

As Dwindle Farb says in "Word Play: What Happens When People Talk" (Vintage, 1993): "Each one of these theories has honest to goodness flaws, and none can withstand the examination of display data approximately the structure of dialect and almost the advancement of our species."

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Flagging Hypothesis 

From the flagging hypothesis, the principle hindrance to the advancement of language-like correspondence in nature is certifiably not a robotic one. Or maybe, the reality images' subjective relationship of sounds or other discernible structures with comparing implications are untrustworthy and likely could be false. As the adage goes, "words are cheap". The issue of dependability was not perceived at all by Darwin, Muller, or the other early developmental scholars. 

Creature vocal signs are, generally, naturally dependable. At the point when a feline murmurs, the sign comprises direct proof of the creature's placated state. We confide in the sign, not because the feline is slanted to be straightforward, but since it just can't phony that sound. Primate vocal calls might be somewhat more manipulable, however, they stay dependable for a similar explanation since they are difficult to counterfeit. 

The 'First Languages' Hypothesis

The "first languages" speculation was proposed in 2004 as a potential answer to this problem. W. Tecumseh Fitch recommended that the Darwinian rule of 'family selection' the intermingling of hereditary interests between family members may be a piece of the appropriate response. Fitch recommends that languages were originally 'primary languages'. If language developed at first for correspondence among moms and their own natural posterity, stretching out later to incorporate grown-up family members also, the interests of speakers and audience members would have would in general agree. Fitch contends that common hereditary interests would have prompted adequate trust and collaboration for characteristically untrustworthy signs words to get acknowledged as reliable thus start advancing just because. 

Complementary Benevolence 

'Complementary benevolence' can be communicated as the rule that on the off chance that tit for tat. In etymological terms, it would imply that if you talk honestly to me, I'll talk honestly to you. Conventional Darwinian corresponding unselfishness, Ulbaek brings up, is a relationship set up between every now and again associating people. For language to win over a whole network, be that as it may, the essential correspondence would have should have been authorized all around as opposed to being left to a singular decision. Ulbaek infers that for language to develop, society all in all more likely than not been dependent upon moral guidelines. 

Humanistic Theory

The humanistic custom thinks about language as a human creation. Renaissance logician Antoine Arnauld gave an itemized portrayal of his concept of the origin of language in Port-Royal Grammar. As per Arnauld, individuals are social and levelheaded commonly, and this encouraged them to make the language as a way to impart their plans to other people. Language development would have happened through a moderate and steady process. In later hypothesis, particularly in useful semantics, the supremacy of correspondence is underscored over mental needs.

The specific way language developed is anyway not considered as imperative to the investigation of languages. Auxiliary etymologist Ferdinand de Saussure relinquished developmental phonetics in the wake of having reached the firm resolution that it would not have the option to give any further progressive understanding after the culmination of the significant works in recorded etymology before the finish of the nineteenth century. Saussure was especially suspicious of the endeavors of August Schleicher and other Darwinian etymologists to get to ancient languages through the arrangement of reproductions of proto-languages. 

The Romulus and Remus Speculation 

The Romulus and Remus speculation, proposed by neuroscientist Andrey Vyshedskiy, tries to deliver the inquiry concerning why the advanced discourse device originated more than 500,000 years before the soonest indications of the present-day human creative mind. This theory recommends that two stages prompted present-day recursive language. The primary stage incorporates the moderate advancement of non-recursive language with a huge jargon alongside the cutting edge discourse mechanical assembly, which incorporates changes to the hyoid bone, expanded willful control of the muscles of the stomach, the development of the FOXP2 quality, just as different changes by 600,000 years ago. Then, the subsequent stage was a fast Chomskian Single Step, comprising of three unmistakable occasions that occurred one after another around 70,000 years back and considered the move from non-recursive to recursive language in early hominins. 

In Religion and Mythology 

The quest for the origin of language has a long history established in mythology. Most mythologies don't acknowledge people for the innovation of language yet talk about a heavenly language originating before human language. Supernatural languages used to speak with creatures or spirits, for example, the language of the winged animals, are additionally normal and were quite compelling during the Renaissance. 

Vaac is the Hindu goddess of discourse, or "discourse represented". As Brahman's "consecrated articulation", she has a cosmological job as the "Mother of the Vedas". The Aztecs' story keeps up that solitary a man, Coxcox, and a lady, Xochiquetzal, endure a flood, having skimmed on a bit of bark. They ended up ashore and conceived numerous youngsters who were from the start brought into the world incapable to talk, yet along these lines, upon the appearance of a pigeon, we're blessed with a language, albeit every one was given an alternate discourse to such an extent that they couldn't comprehend one another.

In the Old Testament, the Book of Genesis (11) says that God kept the Tower of Babel from being finished through a marvel that made its development laborers begin communicating in various languages. After this, they relocated to different locales, assembled by which of the recently made languages they talked, clarifying the origins of languages and countries outside of the rich sickle.

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Approaches 

One can sub-isolate ways to deal with the origin of language as indicated by some hidden suppositions: 

👉 Noam Chomsky, an advocate of irregularity hypothesis, contends that a solitary possibility transformation happened in one individual in the request for a long time back, introducing the language staff (a part of the mid-mind) in "great" or "close great" form. A greater part of etymological researchers starting in 2018 accept progression based speculations, yet they shift by the way they theorize language improvement. Among the individuals who consider language as for the most part inborn, a few prominently Steven Pinker abstain from conjecturing about explicit antecedents in nonhuman primates, focusing basically that the language workforce more likely than not developed in the standard slow manner. 

👉Researchers in this scholarly camp highlights the way that even chimpanzees and bonobos have dormant emblematic limits that they seldom if at any point use in the wild. Objecting to the abrupt change thought, these creators contend that regardless of whether a possibility transformation was to introduce a language organ in an advancing bipedal primate, it would be adaptively futile under completely known primate social conditions. A quite certain social structure-one fit for maintaining surprisingly significant levels of open responsibility and trust-more likely than not developed previously or simultaneously with language to make dependence on "modest signs" (words) a developmentally steady methodology. 

👉Despite this, the rise of new gesture-based communications in current occasions-Nicaraguan Sign Language, for instance-may possibly offer bits of knowledge into the formative stages and imaginative procedures essentially involved. Another methodology examines early human fossils, searching for hints of physical variation to language use. At times, when the DNA of wiped out people can be recouped, the nearness or nonattendance of qualities viewed as language-applicable FOXP2, for instance, may demonstrate informatively. Another methodology, this time archeological, includes conjuring representative conduct, (for example, rehashed custom action) that may leave an archeological follow, for example, mining and changing ochre shades for body-painting while at the same time creating hypothetical contentions to legitimize inductions from imagery all in all to language specifically. 

👉 Utilizing factual techniques to assess the time required to accomplish the current spread and assorted variety in present-day languages, Johanna Nichols an etymologist at the University of California, Berkeley contended in 1998 that vocal languages probably started broadening in our species in any event 100,000 years prior. 

👉A further report by Q. D. Atkinson proposes that progressive populace bottlenecks happened as our African predecessors moved to different zones, prompting a decline in hereditary and phenotypic assorted variety. Atkinson contends that these bottlenecks likewise influenced culture and language, recommending that the further away a specific language is from Africa, the fewer phonemes it contains. 

By the method of proof, Atkinson claims that the present African languages will in general have moderately enormous quantities of phonemes, while languages from territories in Oceania (the last spot to which people moved) have moderately not many. Depending intensely on Atkinson's work, a resulting study has investigated the rate at which phonemes grow normally, contrasting this rate with a portion of Africa's most established languages. The outcomes propose that language initially advanced around 50,000-150,000 years prior, which is around when present-day Homo sapiens evolved. 

Estimates of this sort are not generally acknowledged, yet together thinking about hereditary, archeological, paleontological, and a lot of other proof demonstrates that language most likely rose someplace in sub-Saharan Africa during the Middle Stone Age, generally contemporaneous with the speciation of Homo sapiens. 

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References:

-The Story of Human Language Part I, II and III - Professor John McWhorter 

-Atkinson, Quentin (2011). "Phonemic Diversity Supports a Serial Founder Effect Model of Language Expansion from Africa"

-Christiansen, Morton H., and Simon Kirby (eds.). 2003. Language Evolution. New York: Oxford University Press.

-Hauser, Marc; Noam Chomsky; and W. Tecumseh Fitch. 2002. The faculty of language: What is it, who has it, and how did it evolve? Science 298.1569-79.

-Pinker, Steven, and Ray Jackendoff. 2005. The faculty of language: What's special about it? Cognition 95.210-36.

-Sperber, D., and D. Wilson 1986. Relevance. Communication and cognition. Oxford: Blackwell.

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