Indian Classical Music | The Art of Music

 

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Today the world knows that Indian Classical Music is recognized as Sitar, sarod, tabla, sarangi or dhrupad, khayal, ghazal or raga, tala, Gharana. They speak to Hindustani Art Music - as a general rule, a piece of Indian Classical music. Indian music has been created through complex connections between various people groups of various races and societies for more than a few thousand years. In a musical custom where ad lib prevails, and composed documentation, when utilized, is skeletal, the music of past ages is irreversibly lost. Be that as it may, references to music in antiquated writings, tasteful definitions, and delineations and composed conversations of musical instruments can offer hints. 

In uncommon cases, an old musical style might be safeguarded in a solid oral custom. For instance, musical notes or the structure of a raga, as we probably are aware of them today, more likely than not had their inceptions in the Samavedic times. For most authentic times and styles, enduring compositions clarifying musical scales and modes, give an especially significant method for recovering, at any rate, a proposal of the music of previous occasions. Following the musical hypothesis of the past clarifies the situation of the current musical framework. 

Indian Classical Music, which includes India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal, is popular throughout the Indian subcontinent. It is the most well-known type of classical music after Western Classical Music. It has two significant conventions: the North Indian classical music custom is called Hindustani, while the South Indian and Sri Lankan articulation is called Carnatic. These customs were not particular until about the sixteenth century. During the time of the Mughal rule of the Indian subcontinent, the conventions isolated and advanced into unmistakable structures. Hindustani music underscores ad-lib and investigation of all parts of a raga, while Carnatic exhibitions will in general be short and structure-based. However, the two frameworks keep on having more normal highlights than differences.

Timeline of History 

The underlying foundations of the classical music of India are found in the Vedic writing of Hinduism and the old Natyashastra, the exemplary Sanskrit text on execution expressions by Bharata Muni. The thirteenth-century Sanskrit text Sangita-Ratnakara of Sarangadeva is viewed as the complete content by both the Hindustani music and the Carnatic music customs. 

Little is known about the musical culture of the Indus Valley progress of the third and second centuries BC. Some musical instruments, for example, the curved or blow-molded harp and a few assortments of drums, have been recognized from the little earthenware figures and from the pictographs on the seals that were presumably utilized by shippers. Further, the popular bronze statuette of a moving young lady, presumably speaking to a class of sanctuary artists, unmistakably demonstrates the nearness of music. Proof of Rudra-love during this period has likewise been found. Rudra was later to get well known as Shiva-the preeminent divinity of move, show, and music. 

The base of music in old India is found in the Vedic writing of Hinduism. The soonest Indian idea joined three expressions, syllabic presentation (vadya), Melos (Gita), and dance (nritta). As these fields created, Sangeeta turned into a particular type of craftsmanship, in a structure equal to contemporary music. This imaginable happened before the hour of Yaska (c. 500 BCE), since he remembers these terms for his nirukta examines, one of the six Vedanga of old Indian custom. A portion of the antiquated writings of Hinduism, for example, the Samaveda (c. 1000 BCE) are organized altogether to melodic themes, it is segments of Rigveda set to music. 

The Samaveda is sorted out into two organizations. One section depends on the musical meter, another by the point of the rituals. The content is composed with inserted coding, where swaras (octave notes) are either appeared above or inside the content, or the stanza is composed into parvans (bunch or part) in straightforward words this implanted code of swaras resembles the skeleton of the melody. The swaras have around 12 distinct structures and various blends of these swaras are made to sit under the names of various ragas. 

The particular code of a melody obviously mentions to us what blend of swaras is available in a particular tune. The expressive piece of the tune is designated "sahityam" and sahityam is much the same as singing the swaras through and through however utilizing the verses of the melody. The code as swaras has even the documentation of which note to be sung high and which one low. The psalms of Samaveda contain melodic substance, structure, beat, and metric organization. 

This structure is, be that as it may, not novel or constrained to Samaveda. The Rigveda inserts the musical meter as well, without the sort of elaboration found in the Samaveda. For instance, the Gayatri mantra contains three measurement lines of precisely eight syllables, with an inserted ternary beat. 

The post-Vedic period recorded writing identifying with Indian classical music has been broad. The old and medieval writings are principally in Sanskrit (Hinduism), however significant audits of music hypothesis, instruments and practice were likewise formed in provincial dialects, for example, Braj, Kannada, Odia, Pali (Buddhism), Prakrit (Jainism), Tamil and Telugu. 

While various compositions have been made due to the advanced time, numerous unique chips away at Indian music are accepted to be lost and are known to have existed simply because they are cited and examined in different original copies of Classical Indian Music. Many of the exhaustive Puranas contain enormous parts on music hypothesis and instruments, for example, the Bhagavata Purana, the Markandeya Purana, the Vayu Purana, the Linga Purana, and the Visnudharmottara Purana. The most referred to and powerful among these writings are the Sama Veda, Natya Shastra (exemplary composition on music hypothesis, Gandharva), Dattilam, Brihaddesi (composition on provincial classical music structures), and Sangita Ratnakara (authoritative content for Carnatic and Hindustani traditions). Most noteworthy music hypothesis messages have been by Hindu researchers. Some classical music writings were likewise formed by Buddhists and Jain researchers, and in the sixteenth-century by Muslim researchers.

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During the Mughal time and the primitive period, Indian classical music flourished in the courts of rulers, maharajahs, sovereigns, and affluent aristocrats, who regularly attempted to exceed each other in the support of human expressions. Numerous individuals viewed music as a diversion structure saved for the well off. In Mughal times an exhibitions at some point endured the entire day and throughout the night. It was intended to be performed for a moderately little gathering of individuals in a generally little extravagant chamber room not among an enormous crowd in a show lobby. 

The most well-known vocalist was Tansen, a Rajput princess wedded to the Mughal Emperor Akbar. It was said that her voice was so delightful and incredible it could light oil lights. The Mughals never vanquished the south and Hindu Veda music stayed alive there in sanctuaries and towns and has suffered as Karnatak music. While Hindustani music was court music for elites, Karnatak thrived as music near the individuals. Quite a bit of it was never recorded up to this point. Rather it was passed on utilizing a framework the characterized musical units utilizing science. 

Europeans were captivated by a portion of the music they heard from India. As a story, an Indian musician opened his instrument at the royal wedding of Queen Victoria to demonstrate that "the apparently incredible sounds that he emitted did not come from a hidden electronic device." Metal band music is a lot of alive today. Most towns have a few contending groups, Brass groups are installations of wedding parades. With the decrease of Indian honorability support of classical Indian music has been taken over by rich individuals from the Indian people group in India and abroad and by the paying open. 

Indian classical music takes into account a lot more noteworthy level of "personalization" of the presentation, nearly to the degree of jazz-like impromptu creation. In this way, every presentation of a raga is unique. 

The objective of the raga is to make a trancey state, to communicate a temperament of rapture. The fundamental distinction with western classical music is that the Indian ragas are not "made" by an author, yet were made using a long developmental procedure throughout the hundreds of years. In this manner, they don't speak to the mind of the writer however a general thought of the world. They communicate not close to home but rather generic feeling. Another distinction is that Indian music is monodic, not polyphonic. 

Hindustani (North Indian) ragas are doled out to explicit times (or night) and to explicit seasons. Numerous ragas share a similar scale, and numerous ragas share the equivalent melodic subject. There are a huge number of ragas, yet six are viewed as central: Bhairav, Malkauns, Hindol, Dipak, Megh, and Shree. A raga isn't really instrumental, and, if vocal, it doesn't really go with. However, when it is joined by percussion, (for example, tablas), the mood is frequently rather complicated because it is built from a mix of crucial cadenced examples (or taals). The primary instrument of the ragas is the sitar, albeit truly the vina zither was at any rate similarly significant. Carnatic (Southern Indian) ragas comprise probably the most seasoned arrangement of music on the planet. 

They depend on seven cadenced cycles and 72 central ragas. The originator of the Karnataka school is viewed as Purandara Dasa (1494). Carnatic music is for the most part vocal and reverential in nature, and played with unexpected instruments in comparison to Hindustani music, (for example, the mridangam drum, the ghatam earth pot, the vina sitar instead of sitar, sarod, tambura, and tabla). The central arrangement of Carnatic tunes is the "Kriti", which are normally set in the style of a raga (the raga fills in as the melodic establishment). 

The brilliant time of Carnatic music was the time of Syama Sastri, who kicked the bucket in 1827, of Tyagaraja, who passed on in 1847 and who made the Pancharatna Krithis just as two "shows", Prahalada Bhakti Vijayam and Nauca Charitam, and of Muthuswami Dikshitar, who kicked the bucket in 1835 in the wake of creating the Kamalamba Navavarnams and the Navagraha krithis. 

As shown by the Rough Guide of World Music, "Singing is viewed as the most elevated type of classical music...Instruments are respected by their comparability to the human voice...The level of musical immaculateness is appointed by a scale which has music at one outrageous and words at the other. As word becomes more audible and accordingly the significance of the verses more significant, so the structure is viewed as t be less musically unadulterated." Serious audience members of Indian music regularly allude to two sorts of sound: one physical and perceptible to the human ear; the other is profound and imperceptible. 

The later is supposed to be framed from the ether and frees the spirit. It supposedly takes incredible dedication and fixation to see it. In the Agra territory, vocalists bite on tamarind seeds near the grave of the celebrated artist Tan Sen to improve the nature of their voices. It was said that his voice was amazing to the point that it could light oil lights.

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Natyashastra 

With its authentic and profound established strict custom, Indian folklore holds music to be of Divine Origin. Narada was the main sage to whom the laws of music were uncovered; Tumburu was the primary artist; Saraswati was the goddess of music and learning; and Bharata was the first to draw up rules for theater, of which music was a significant and indispensable part. Natyashastra, or the Science of Theater, a composition on dramaturgy, is said to have been created by Bharata at some point between 200 BC and 200 AD. Natyashastra commits itself for the most part to the theater, dance, and music. It likewise addresses the related territories of the social existence of India. It is the establishment on which Indian philosophical reasoning solidly rests. It is created in exposition and refrain, however, stanza prevails. The sections on music contain depictions of different classes of instruments. Gandharva music, the methods of playing musical instruments, and the principles for taals are clarified. Natyashastra additionally characterizes the Rasa hypothesis. 

The hypothesis expresses that "Rasa emerges from an (appropriate) blend of the vibhavas (the Stimulants), the anubhavas (the physical Consequents), and the vyabhicharibhavas (the Transient Emotional States)". 

Natyarasa is the essential feeling created by the communication of the different bhavas. It is introduced by the proper adjustment of the voice, the developments of the body, and the automatic responses that well effect the tasteful reasonableness of the observer. This hypothesis of Rasa articulated by Bharata and deciphered by his significant observer Abhinavagupta(10th century), has intrigued the adherents of both the academic and the performing conventions in India throughout the previous 2000 years. It has given a significant stylish structure to the artistic expressions (primarily verse, fiction, and dramatization), the performing expressions (chiefly dance, theater, and music), the expressive arts (essentially painting and mold), and the consolidated expressions (like design). 

The Gupta Time Frame 

The time of the Gupta rulers shone in artistic greatness. It is frequently portrayed as the Golden Age of culture, expressions, and learning in antiquated India. The creative accomplishments of the Gupta era were typified by Kalidasa, who was on Vikramaditya's courtyard (380-413 AD). He was a melodious artist and an author of stories and plays. 

The sonnet 'Meghadoot', the epic 'Raghuvamsha', and the play 'Shakuntala' are a portion of his inventive magnum opuses that enhance the Indian scholarly custom. The various references to music and dance in Kalidasa's works show the significance of concurred with music in man's life during his period. The compositions by Kalidasa include musical instruments such as Parivadini Vina, Vipanchi Vina, Pushkar, Mridang, Vamshi, and Shankha, different kinds of tunes such as Kakaligeet, Streegeet, and Apsarogeeti, specializations such as Murchana, Swarasaptaka and Tana and vocal features such as Kinnarkanthi and Valguvagam.

Harshavardhan (606-648 AD) was an artist himself, the Gupta king. In his plays, 'Nagananda,' 'Ratnavali', and 'Priyadarshika' are referred to as music-making. A story in the 'Panchatantra' (fifth century), one of the most commended assemblages of tales at any point created by humanity, additionally alludes to music. 

Puranas 

Stories in the Puranas feature the general subject of the accepting of musical information as a heavenly aid. The Puranas additionally draw out the eminence that music concurred in human and public activity. The Puranas were given starting with one age then onto the next through the oral custom. It is accepted that all the significant Puranas were available for use by 100 AD. They were steadily arranged and solidified between 400 AD and 1000 AD. Of the 18 Puranas, three harps at some length on music. The Vayu Purana is viewed as an early Purana that began around 300 AD. It alludes to music as Gandharva. 

The music of this Purana manages the customs performed during the various periods of a penance. The Markandeyapurana is perhaps the littlest Purana. It appeared somewhere in the range of 400 and 500 AD. Through an exchange among Saraswati and Ashvatara, a lord of Nagas or snakes, it offers fascinating experiences into music. Saraswati offers shelter to the King who wants only the information on the musical notes or swaras. The Vishnudharmottarapurana, which is followed to 400-500 AD, addresses practically all expressions of the human experience, even though having almost no unique material. It commits one section each to Geet and Vadya. 

Phase of Transformation 

Hindustani craftsmanship music started to advance after pre-medieval Indian music went through specific phases of change and improvement until the start of the eleventh century. Numerous Indian and non-Indian societies took a functioning part in this change. Around the ninth century, the Sufis protected firm traction in India with their incredible love for music and acknowledgment of numerous indigenous traditions. The devotees of Nizamuddin Chishti (1324 AD) incorporated the 'Basant' and 'Rang' festivities in their strict practices. Likewise, during the hour of Kaikubad (1287-1290 AD), both Farsi and Hindi tunes found a spot in exhibitions. 

The appearance of Islam toward the finish of the twelfth century carried Persian music and culture with it. The mentality of the Muslim rulers toward Hinduism changed. Some like Aurangzeb (1658-1707) was unequivocally hostile to Hindu. Others like the incomparable Akbar (1556-1605) were very much arranged towards their Hindu subjects. Muslim India had a long, mind-boggling, and momentous social history. Eventually, it turned into an inseparable piece of the Indian social ethos.

Raja Mansingh Tomar 

Raja Mansingh Tomar of Gwalior (1486-1516 AD) was the main impetus behind presenting and uniting Dhrupad, a kind of Hindustani music that appreciates regard even today. He supplanted customary Sanskrit melodies by Hindi tunes. He is likewise credited with making three volumes out of melodies: 

1. Vishnupadas (tunes in commendation of ruler Vishnu), 
2. Dhrupad, 
3. Hori and Dhamar tunes are related to Holi. 

Mansingh's help gave pride of the spot to these classifications. He likewise accordingly related music to the lives and language of the laymen. He was a liberal supporter of expressions of the human experience. Both Hindu and Muslim musicians were utilized in his court. With the ability accessible in his court he started a significant task to organize the predominant music. It was this undertaking brought about the making of that extensive composition on music in Hindi, 'Mankutuhal'. 

Bhakti Development 

The 'Bhakti' religion spread toward the north in the fourteenth and fifteenth hundreds of years, where it resounded with the Rama and Krishna reverential cliques. Theoreticians like Ramanujacharya and Ramananda and holy person writers like Kabir and Tulsidas had a place with the Rama custom. Two different Krishna religions were led by Vallabhacharya and his contemporary Sri Chaitanya in the 17th century. The Vallabha faction straightforwardly added to the hypothesis and practice of music. This affected Hindustani Art Music too through Ashtachap, Pushti, and Haveli sangeet. 

In the Bhakti development as in Hindustani Art Music, melodies and composite introductions, utilizing components of discourse, dance, and dramatization, assumed a significant job in spreading thoughts in workmanship and music. Crafted by authors like Jayadeva (eleventh century), Vidyapati (1375 AD), Chandidas (fourteenth fifteenth century), Bhakta Narasimha (1416-1475 AD) and Meerabai (1555-1603 AD) are prepared to take these examples. 

Tansen 

Tansen, the incredible musician of Akbar's court, had his early preparation in the school established by Raja Mansingh Tomar of Gwalior. Among the numerous works credited to him is a composition named the 'Ragamala', many 'Dohas' depicting the 'Lakshana' or the traits of ragas, 'Sangeet Saar', and 'Shri Ganesh Stotra'. As per a few researchers, Tansen decreased the 4000 ragas and raginis of his time into an arrangement of 400. He additionally diminished 92 taals to 12. He is said to have made numerous ragas like 'Miyan Malhar' and 'Miyan ki Todi'. Tansen's Senia Gharana partitioned into two streams. His elderly son Bilaskhan led Gharana as Rabab, and Gharana as a sitar artist was his second child Suratsen. 

Gharana 

The term Gharana is gotten from the Hindi word 'Ghar'. This thusly can be followed to the Sanskrit word 'Griha', which signifies 'family' or 'house'. The Gharana idea picked up cash just in the nineteenth century when the imperial support delighted in by entertainers debilitated. Entertainers were then constrained to move to urban focuses. To hold their individual personalities, they depended on the names of the districts they hailed from. In this way, even today, the names of numerous gharanas allude to places. The khayal singers include Agra, Gwalior, Kirana, Indore, Mevat, Sahaswan, Bhendibazar, and Jaipur in section. The khayal singing Gharana is a major component of this. For example, the relaxed improvement of ragas just as the premium put on the emotional substance of music limits the decision of ragas accessible to the Kirana Gharana established by Ustad Abdul Karim Khan (1872-1937 AD). 

The Agra Gharana, established by Ghagge Khudabux (conceived in 1800 AD) has a rich collection of fluctuated kinds of musical pieces. The devotees of the Gharana sang numerous uncommon ragas. The treatment of each new raga is consistent as point by point as that of any known raga. 

The Jaipur Gharana established by Ustad Alladiya Khan (1855-1945 AD), is notable for its propensity for uncommon ragas. They are its staple toll. The music made by the Gharana is loaded with complicated examples. The Gharana appears to focus exclusively on khayal. There are additionally gharanas for thumris. In the Benaras thumri, the words in the content of a tune are musically adorned to draw out their importance. 

The Lucknow Gharana presents unpredictably decorated and sensitive thumris that are express in their sensuality. The chief element of the thumri of the Patiala Gharana is its consolidation of the tappa from the Punjab locale. It is with this tappa component that the Gharana has its effect, leaving from the khayal-commanded Benaras thumris and the dance-situated Lucknow thumris.

Raga

Ragas, which refers to melody and tala, which refers to rhythms, are the heart of Indian songs. Ragas are many and have their own distinctive qualities in the classical Indian music field. There are 7 swars of songs, namely Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni 

• SA - Agni, 

• RE - Brahma, 

• GA - Saraswati, 

• MA - Shiva, 

• PA - Vishnu, 

• DHA - Ganesha, 

• NI - Surya.

In Sanskrit there is a phrase-" The Ranjayathi iti Ragah" indicates, "what colors the mind is a raga.

In the view of those listening, Raga is intended to evoke pure emotion. So the musical art is based on the conceptions of Nava Rasa or of The Nine Sentiments- Shringara means romantic and erotic, Hasya means humorous, Karuna means pathetic, Raudra means anger, Veera means heroic, Bhayanaka means fearful, Vibhatsa means disgustful, Adbhuta means amazement and Shanta means peaceful.  One of these nine rasas dominates mainly per raga. 

Besides the fact that each raga is correlated with a certain mood, it is also related strongly to a certain time of day or year. The day and night cycle is analogous with the life cycle itself, and also the seasonal cycle. There are distinct emotions correlated with any portion of the day – such as the time before sunrise, midday, late afternoon, early evening, late night. The period spent with increasing raga may be clarified by the existence of the observations or historical details regarding the raga. 

A Thaata in the South Indian tradition of Carnatic music is a category of derivative ragas named "Janya ragas," meaning "produced ragas" or "secret ragas" of "Asrita ragas." Nonetheless, such words are hypothetical phrases in the context of learning as the ties between the two layers are not set or have a clear connection between parent and child.

Janaka ragas are merged in the Katapayadi sutra scheme and arranged as ragas in the Melakarta ragas. A Melakarta raga has both arohanam (ascending scale) and avarohanam (descending scale) in all seven notes. Harikambhoji, Kalyani, Kharaharapriya, Mayamalavagowla, Dheerasankarabharanam, and Hanumatodi are some of the ragas of Melakarta. Janya raga comes from a combination of Janaka ragas from parent rāga by means of a swaram combination (usually a subset of swarams. Abheri, Abhogi, Bhairavi, Hindolam, Mohanam, and Kambhoji are some of the ragas of the janya.

Classical Indian music is an oral heritage. The guru advises the student explicitly. This ancient practice is governed by the bond between the artist and his guru. Tradition and influenced by the imaginative energies of master Musicians shape the foundation of Indian classical music. An artist should experiment and improvise even as the essence and complexities of art rely so greatly on comprehension.

Styles

Lord Krishna and the beauty of nature are the main themes of Hindustani music. Some of Hindustani's prominent followers include Allauddin Khan, Vilayat Khan, Bismillah Khan, Bhimsen Joshi, and others. An ancient style of music rooted in South India is Carnatic music. It is assumed that its creator is spiritual. Mysore Sadasiva Rao, Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and others are some of its leading composers. Khayal, Ashtapadi, Dhrupad, Dhamar, Tarana, Trivat, Ghazal, Thumri, Tappa, Tapkhyal, Chaiti, Kajari, and Bhajan are the most popular types of Indian classical music. Some of them are:

Dhrupad

The oldest type. 'Dhruva' is a set text and 'Pada' is a number. Dhrupad does not have any decorative contact and only Meends and gamaks are allowed. There is no Taans in Dhrupad, just layakaris like Dogoon, Teengoon, Adi, etc. The lyrics are based on religious offers and Pakhawaj is Dhrupad's percussion instrument. The Dagar family identity is in India associated with the Dhrupad estate.

Khayal 

"Khayal," an Urdu word means creativity, the most common mode of singing. Less rigid and more romantic and delicate than Dhrupad, it offers greater décoration and freedom.

Thumri 

Thumri, established during the latter part of the Mughal rule, offers incredible versatility and independence as a piece of light classical music. The basic character and essence of Thumri are recited in general through the extensive usage of meends and taans, and it allows for the creation of different feelings and sensations. Thumri's meaning is better known under the word 'Thumri' itself, which is derived from 'Thumak.'

Tarana

Tarana has sthayi and Antara, much like khayal, but the distinction is that it uses syllables such as nadir, tanan, yalali, etc. Currently, Tarana is usually created in drut laya or fast-tempo by an artist only after Khayal.

Tappa

It also comes from Punjab and is richly ornamental in light-classical music with a swinging rhythm of short phrases and incessant volleys of Taans emanating from each term Sung in Punjabi, Miyan Shourie, originally from Lucknow but later relocated to Punjab, is credited to this form of style. The songs are words of passion.

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Raga light-up Diya/Lamp 

Since antiquated occasions, music has been given an exceptional spot in the Indian culture. Indian classical music history is advanced with various musicians who had the option to make various impacts in seasons, daytimes through ragas. One such musician was the amazing Tansen. He lived during Akbar's time. In Akbar's courtyard, Tansen was among nine stones. He had such a great amount of mastery over the ragas that he could paint pictures, brought downpours, and lit a fire with his singing. So also, on the off chance that he sang a night raga during the daytime, the daylight would reduce and it would resemble its nightfall as of now. 

Tansen went to Akbar's court in 1556 and before long turned into his top choice. Plenty of Akbar's squires got envious of Tansen's benefits. They plotted to consume Tansen while he sang raga Deepak. This raga when sung caused a fire in the territory of execution. The retainers spread the news that Tansen could make Diya light up with his singing. Akbar heard about this ability and asked Tansen to play out the accomplishment. 

Tansen was apprehensive, however couldn't ignore the lord. He requested an ideal opportunity to set himself up. Tansen realized that if he sings Raga Deepak - the raga of fire, the warmth it radiates won't just set the lights land, however, it will likewise consume him to remains. At that point, he had a thought. 

He educated Raga Megha Malhar - the raga of rain, to his daughter. In the case of sing appropriately, this raga could bring precipitation. Upon the arrival of his presentation, Tansen began singing raga Deepak. Before long the temperature of the lobby began rising. Abruptly, the corridor was lit with endless Diyas. 

As the music proceeded, everything in the encompassing began consuming. Meanwhile, Tansen's little girl began singing raga Megh Malhar which brought mists and rains all over to splash off the fire. Accordingly, Tansen was saved.

                                                                

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References:

- ITC Sangeet Research Academy

- A brief summary of Indian music by Piero Scaruffi

- Hindustani Classical

- Times of India

- Book- Rough Guide of World Music

- The Music Of India, Abhinav Publications. 

- The Romance of the Raga, Abhinav Publications.

- Raga, Indian Musical Genre, Encyclopaedia Britannica